Angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from preexisting vasculature, plays critical roles in both normal physiological processes such as wound healing, pregnancy, tissue regeneration and in the pathogenesis of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and diabetic microvascular disease (see Carmeliet P (2005), Nature 438, pp. 932-936), and is regulated by a large number of pro- and antiangiogenic cytokines and growth factors (Ferrara N (2000), Curr Opin Biotechnol 11, pp. 617-624). During adulthood, most blood vessels remain quiescent and angiogenesis occurs only in the cycling ovary and in the placenta during pregnancy.
However, when angiogenic growth factors are produced in excess of angiogenesis inhibitors, endothelial cells are stimulated to proliferate. A number of angiogenic growth factors have been described to date among which vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) appears to play a key role as a positive regulator of physiological and pathological angiogenesis (Brown et al. (1997) in “Control of Angiogenesis” (Goldberg and Rosen, eds.), Birkhauser, Basel, pp. 233-269; Thomas K A (1996), J Biol Chem 271, pp. 603-606; Neufeld et al. (1999), FASEB J 13, pp. 9-22).
The focus on inhibition of angiogenesis for treatment of cancer and macular degeneration has largely focused on targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors due to the prominent role of this pathway in vascular formation. VEGF-mediated signaling is mediated through its interactions with two receptor tyrosine kinases, VEGFR1 (Flt-1) and VEGFR2 (Flk-1 or KDR). VEGFR2, which is expressed in vascular endothelial cells, monocytes, macrophages, and hematopoietic stem cells, is the primary mediator of the mitogenic and angiogenic effects of VEGF. VEGF is a homodimeric ligand that binds two molecules of VEGFR2, one at each pole, thereby triggering receptor dimerization and activation, with a KD of around 100 pM. The role of VEGFR1 is less clear, but it appears to function as a ‘decoy’ receptor that negatively regulated VEGF signaling by preventing VEGF from binding VEGFR2. VEGF-A is the main ligand for VEGFR2, but proteolytically cleaved forms of VEGF-C and VEGF-D may also bind to and activate VEGFR2. Hence, it may be beneficial to target VEGFR2 directly in order to best inhibit angiogenic processes.
Integrins are a diverse class of heterodimeric (α/β) receptors involved in cell adhestion to extracellular matrix ligands. In particular, integrin αvβ3 has been implicated as critically involved in tumor proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis, and there have therefore been many efforts to develop anti-cancer therapies that target integrin αvβ3. Interestingly, there may be a critical link between integrin αvβ3 and VEGF2-stimulated angiogenesis. Moreover, cross-talk and synergy exists between integrins and growth factor receptors. In particular, engagement of αvβ3 integrin on endothelial cells promotes phosphorylation and activation of VEGFR2, thereby augmenting the mitogenic activity of VEGF. It has been shown that β3 binds to VEGFR2 to potentiate its activity, and that αvβ3 antagonists decrease the β3-VEGFR2 interactions and VEGFR2 activation (though not VEGFR2 expression levels). These studies suggest that VEGFR2-mediated angiogenesis is potentiated by integrin αvβ3.
Numerous other factors are involved in angiogenic processes, including transforming growth factors alpha and beta (TGF-α and -β), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and fibroblast growth factor (FGF). Accordingly, blocking of single angiogenic molecules may have only modest effect on slowing tumor growth because there multiple angiogenesis pathways that can replace VEGF as the cancer progresses. Thus, there has been considerable interest in developing biological agents capable of binding to more than one set of ligand-receptor interactions in order to more efficiently block angiogenic processes.